New developments in advanced welding
Sources of further information and advice
There exists a number of professional bodies in various countries around the world whose members can provide information and advice, as summarized in Table 4.1. The predominant body is probably the Laser Institute of America which in spite of the ‘America’ in the name is an international organization. For example, at their 2002 annual conference, the International Conference on Applications of Lasers and ElectroOptics, or ICALEO, only about half the attendees were from the USA; there were 101 attendees from 14 European countries, and 43 attendees from six Asian countries, in spite of limitations on travel due to political events and epidemics.
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Table 4.1 Professional bodies/industrial organizations
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There are several research groups with considerable skill in laser processing. Table 4.2 gives a representative sample.
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Table 4.2 Research organizations
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4.6.9 Laser beam welding standards
For the first two decades of laser welding, there were no widely recognized standards regulating the process. Many companies that depended on the process developed their own procedure specification and qualification procedures, or used those previously employed for electron beam welding. In the last dozen years there has been a flurry of international activity. The European standard committee and the ISO organization have proposed and approved a variety of standards, largely relating to equipment. In 2002, the standard Specification and Qualification of Welding Procedures for Metallic Materials - Welding Procedure Specification - Part 4: Laser Beam Welding, ISO/FDIS 15609-4:2002 was circulated for approval. Other relevant documents include ISO/DIS 15614-11, Specification and Approval of Welding Procedures for Metallic Materials - Welding Procedure Test, Part II, Electron and Laser Beam Welding. Further information and copies of the specifications are available from the ISO secretariat, at International Organization for Standardization, DIN Burggrafenstr 6, 10787 Berlin, Germany.
The American Welding Society has compiled an American national standard ANSI/AWS C7.2 Recommended Practices for Laser Beam Welding Cutting and Drilling, based upon input from a committee of laser suppliers, users and researchers. It is expected that a Process Specification and Operator Qualification for Laser Beam Welding to be released in 2006. These standards are available from the American Welding Society at 550 NW LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126, USA.
The need for and the existence of these standards and specifications indicates that laser welding is now a mature process, accepted for industrial practices.
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Blake A. and Mazumder J. (1982), ‘Control of composition during laser welding of aluminum magnesium alloy using a plasma suppression technique’, Proceedings International Conference on Applications of Lasers and Electro Optics (ICALEO), The Laser Institute of America, Orlando FL. Sept 20-33, 1982, Boston, Mass Boechat A. A.P., Su D. and Jones J. D.C. (1993), ‘Dependence of output near-field beam profile on launching conditions in graded-index fibers used in delivery system for Nd:YAG lasers’, Applied Optics, 32, 291-7 Bolin S. R. (1976), ‘Limited penetration laser welding applications’, Australian Welding Journal, January/February 1976 23-8 Bolin S. R. (1983), ‘Nd:YAG laser applications survey’, in Bass M. (ed.), Laser Materials Processing, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 407 Brushwood J. (1984), Assessment of Materials-Processing Lasers, EPRI EM-3465. Palo Alto, Electric Power Research Institute DeMaria A. J. (1976), ‘Review of high power CO2 lasers’, in Bekefi G (ed.), Principles of Laser Plasmas, New York, J Wiley and Sons Dowden J., Davis M. and Kapadia P. (1983), ‘Some aspects of the fluid dynamics of laser welding’, Journal Fluid Mechanics, 126, 123-46 Fuerschbach P. W. and Hinkley D. A. (1997), ‘Pulsed Nd:YAG laser welding of cardiac pacemaker batteries with reduced heat input’, Welding Journal: Welding Research Supplement, March 1997, 103S-109S Graham M. P. and Weckman D. C. (1995), ‘A comparison of rotating-wire-and rotating- pinhole-type laser beam analyzers when used to measure pulsed Nd: YAG laser beams’, Measurement Science and Technology, 6, 1492-9
Hayes R. H. (1997), ‘An innovative technology for the gas turbine component repair industry’, World Aviation Gas Turbine Engine Overhaul and Repair Conference Hyatt C. V. and Magee K. H. (1994), ‘Laser surface melting and cladding of nickel aluminum bronzes’ in Proceedings of Advanced Methods of Joining New Materials II, Miami, The American Welding Society, 111-26 Hyatt C. V. and Majumdar A. (2000), ‘Effect of microstructure on the erosion corrosion and cavitation erosion behavior of laser clad nickel aluminum bronzes’, Proceedings 12th International Federation of Heat Treatment and Surface Engineering Conference, Melbourne, Australia Melbourne, Institute of Materials Engineering, 119-21 Hyatt C. V., Magee K. H. and Betancourt T. (1998), ‘The effect of heat input on the microstructure and properties of nickel aluminum bronze laser clad with a consumable of composition Cu-9.0Al-4.6Ni-3.9Fe-1.2Mn’, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 29A 1677-90
Kawai Y., Alhara M., Ishii K., Tabuchi M. and Sasaki H. (1984), ‘Development of laser welder for strip processing line’, Kawasaki Steel Technical Report, 10, 39-46 Koechner W. (1976), Solid State Laser Engineering, New York, Springer Verlag Krause S. (2001), ‘An advanced repair technique: laser powder buildup welding’, Sulzer Technical Review, 4, 4-6 Locke E. V., Hoag E. D. and Hella R. A. (1972), ‘Deep penetration welding with high power CO2 lasers’, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, QE-8, 132-5 MacCallum D. O., Fuerschbach P. W., Milewski J. O. and Piltch M. (2000), ‘Beam characterization of high power fiber delivered Nd:YAG lasers’, at the American Welding Society Convention, Chicago IL, April 25-27 Matsuyama H., Kano J., Shibata K. and Ninomiya R. (2000), Process and materials development for laser cladding valve seats on aluminum engine heads’, Powertrain International, 3(2), 40-8 Mehta P., Cooper E. B. and Otten R. (1984), ‘Reverse machining via CO2 laser’, in Mazumder J. (ed.), Proceedings of the Materials Processing Symposium, International Conference on Applications of Lasers and ElectroOptics, Orlando, Laser Institute of America, Orlando, FL, 168-76 Metzbower E. A. (1981), ‘Laser welding’, Naval Engineers Journal, August 1981, 49-58 Milewski J. O., Lewis G. K., Thoma D. J., Keel G. I., Nemec R. B. and Reiner T. R.A. (1998), ‘Directed light fabrication of a solid metal hemisphere using 5-axis powder deposition’, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 75, 165-72 Notenboom G. (1984), ‘Laser spot welding in the electronics industry, in Crafer R., (ed.), Laser Welding, Cutting, and Surface Treatment, Abington, UK, The Welding Institute
O’Brian R. L. (1991), Welding Handbook, 8th ed., Volume 2, Welding Processes, Miami, American Welding Society Offenberger A. A., Kerr R. D. and Smy PR. (1972), ‘Plasma diagnostics using CO2 laser absorption and interferometry’, Journal Applied Physics, 43 574-7 Ono M., Shiozaki T., Ohmura M., Nagahama H. and Kohno K. (1996), ‘High power laser application for steel industry’ in Proceedings 6th European Conference on Laser Treatment of Materials, September, Stuttgart Patel C. K.N. (1969), ‘High power carbon dioxide lasers’, in Schawlow A. L. (ed.), Lasers and Light, Readings from Scientific American, San Francisco, W. H. Freeman and Company
Swift-Hook D. T. and Gick A. E.F. (1973), ‘Penetration welding with lasers’, Welding Journal: Welding Research Supplement, 488S-492S
Zacharia T., David S. A., Vitek J. M. and DebRoy T. (1990), ‘Modeling the effect of surface active elements on weld pool fluid flow, heat transfer, and geometry’, in David S. A. and Vitek T. M. (eds), Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, Gatlinburg TN, May 14-19, 1989, Materials Park Ohio USA, ASM International
